Show abstract. This theory has become increasingly prominent since the 1990s 1 and can be applied in educational settings as well as in socialization and play. This could be because staying with like-minded people, such as members of your gender, was much safer than spending time with people very dissimilar to you (e.g., an unfamiliar group) because they would not have much incentive to raise you and help you survive. We then jumped into social-based theories of social learning theory and social-cognitive theory. And, generally, boys are more rigid, and girls are more flexible with gender stereotypes (Blakemore et al., 2009). Is it the same across countries? Social learning theory says that we learn certain behaviours and social roles (i.e. This results in the individual identifying with the same-sex parent, and adopting that parents behaviors, roles, etc. The following link provides a nice summary of how the two genders move through the Phallic Stage: https://www.simplypsychology.org/Psychosexual%20Development.pdf . There are two different factors at play: our genetics and our hormones. Heck, you do not even have to read the question options. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are all connected in the developmental task of a baby smiling at his or her mother's touch. Some studies support this theory, such as a 1993 study by Liben and Signorella in which 106 predominantly white children were shown stereotypical images of behaviours alongside neutral and non-stereotypical images. Gender Development summarize what we know about biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender development. Biological, Psychological, and Behavioral Gender Differences in Men and Women Discussing why Psychological and behavioral gender differences are due to the bi. The center of Horneys theory is that individuals need a safe and nurturing environment. As such, the groups that formed tended to be kin and shared similar DNA. (2022) The sexual brain, genes, and cognition: A machine-predicted brain sex score explains individual differences in cognitive intelligence and genetic influence in young children. Bertha (Anna O.) Biological Psychological And Social Factors This book looks at causative reasons behind creative acts and stylistic expressions. Shortly after birth, boys experience an increase in testosterone, whereas girls experience an increase in estrogen. The superego is partly conscious but mostly unconscious, and part of it becomes our conscience. Freud believed that consciousness had three levels 1) consciousness which was the seat of our awareness, 2) preconscious that included all of our sensations, thoughts, memories, and feelings, and 3) the unconscious, which was not available to us. Overall, teachers place less emphasis on girls academic accomplishments and focus more on their cooperation, cleanliness, obedience, and quiet/passive play. Research tends to indicate that teachers place a heavier focus, in general, on males this means they not only get more praise, they also receive more correction and criticism (Simpson & Erickson, 1983). As children watch and observe, they learn what behaviours are associated with the gender they identify with. Which of these theories are NOT cognitive theories of gender development? (McLeod, 2008). The existence of research supports the validity of the theory. We have seen a slight shift in this in many media forms beginning in the mid to late 1980s and 1990s (Stever, 2017; Torino, 2017). We also get direct instruction on how to behave as well. Finally, we will end by taking a brief, but important, glance at various biologically based theories of gender development. One of the first questions is How far along are you? and then Are you going to find out the sex of the baby? We begin to socialize children to gender before they are even born! Women have evolved to be the carers of children, whilst men have evolved to be the providers for their families. Gender constancy includes multiple parts. Article. However, in the Genital stage, Freud theorized that this is a time in which adolescents experiment sexually and begin to settle into romantic relationships. As children get older, their corrective feedback becomes subtler. who suggested that gender identities develop through the use of cognitive representations of concepts known as schemas? Overall, for both genders, identification is the ultimate resolution of the internal conflict in the Phallic stage. Gender roles in development consist of biological, psychosexual, social learning and cognitive. Females in videogames tend to be sexualized and males are portrayed as aggressive (Stever, 2017; Torino, 2017). Cognitive studies use a range of methods such as case studies, questionnaires, lab experiments and interviews to find out about what thought patterns we have and what these mean for us. In terms of gender, Martin and Halverson suggested that children develop their gender identity by creating schemas about different genders and determining their in-group and out-group based on this. However, in adolescence, they become more rigid again. If they are provided such, they will develop appropriately. Clarify cognitive theories of psychology and how they apply to gender. This is learning essentially done through motor practice. After an infant has been shown a gendered item (doll versus a truck) they will then stare at a photograph of the matching gender longer. It likely occurs in three different phases. The second part of personality emerges after birth with early formative experiences and is called the ego. In terms of gender, Martin and Halverston suggested children develop their gender identity by creating schemas about different genders and determining their in-group and out-group based on this. Even video games have gender stereotyped focuses. First, libido is the psychic energy that drives a person to pleasurable thoughts and behaviors. Not only that they can pair male and female voices with male and female faces (known as intermodal gender knowledge; Poulin-Dubois, Serbin, Kenyon, & Derbyshire, 1994). By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with . As children mature, their gender constancy becomes more established, which lays the foundation for how they understand other elements of gender, including same-sex models and gender stereotypes. Boys are more gender-typed and fathers place more focus on this (Bvunzawabaya, 2017). When participants act as they believe the researcher expects them to act rather than behave naturally. So, what does this have to do with Freuds stages and theory? It should be noted that the amount of rigidity to gender norms of the behavior being modeled is also important (Perry & Bussey, 1979). This phenomenon is not evidenced in fraternal twins or non-twin siblings to the same degree (Bevan, 2017). Kohlberg is one of those theorists we will learn about later. Essentially, the groups with the strongest DNA that allowed for the best traits for survival, survived. This occurs due to varying levels of exposure to testosterone. Cognitive approaches focus on our thought processes, and how they can explain our behaviors and certain psychological phenomena. They include hunger, thirst, self-preservation, and sex. Nutrients and micronutrients are vital for proper brain function. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. However, each theory has a slightly different perspective on how that may occur. (2015) suggested using a Psychologists have identified several theories of gender development that can help answer this question. However, growing evidence has led to a new conception of psychosexual development as a result of genetic, hormonal, and psychosocial influences. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. You then go to the equipment and do the same exact thing! By age 2, children use words like boy and girl correctly (Leinbach & Fagot, 1986) and can accurately point to a male or female when hearing a gender label given. In a girl, it is the other way around. These labels allow children to form in-groups and out-groups, in this case, boys and girls. However, the different in- and out-groups, which are cognitive concepts that boys and girls identify with during their early years, can significantly impact their gender expression. focuses on how our unconscious thoughts and drives influence our behaviour. She felt confined and suffocated in this life and took to a fantasy world she called her private theater. Anna also developed hysteria, including symptoms such as memory loss, paralysis, disturbed eye movements, reduced speech, nausea, and mental deterioration. Will you pass the quiz? Schemas are abstract cognitive representations of concepts, like a mental toolbox containing information about various things. The problem with his theory is children begin to recognize gender and model gender behaviors before they have the cognitive capacity for gender constancy (remember all that we learned about how infants show gender-based knowledge?). This then influences the child to conform more to gender-traditional expectations (e.g., boy stops playing with a doll and picks up the truck). These stages relate to their age and understanding of gender. the fact that cognitive, social, and biological forces all interplay to influence gender development illustrates which theme from the text. Child Psych EXAM 3. Within learning-based biological theories, there are five types of learning theorized to occur. Briefly, Oedipus was separated from his mother and father early in life. Observation is one of our most important survival skills as humansChildrenen watch and observes those around us from a very young age m and, eventually, try to mimic them. Biological influences include. Basic hostility was defined as the individuals anger at their parents while experiencing high frustration that they were dependent on them (Harris, 2016). A lot of the research that is used to support the theory is conducted using interviews on young children, which makes demand characteristics more likely. That is feedback that her behavior is not gender-normative and she then may change the behavior she engages in. If a child has created a schema that says boys play with trucks, when the boy is handed a truck, he will quickly choose to play with it. Some people claim that a person's personality is inherited while others claim that the environment in which a person lives determines his/her personality. Parents begin to socialize children to gender long before they can label their own. In general, media tends to portray males as more direct, assertive, muscular, in authority roles, and employed, whereas women tend to be portrayed as dependent, emotional, low in status, in the home rather than employed, and their appearance is often a focus. In the past, gender identity was thought to be influenced only by social and familial factors. Following the Phallic stage is the Latency stage, in which Freud indicated that no real psychosexual development occurs; rather impulses are repressed. Please note that a person may become fixated at any stage, meaning they become stuck, thereby affecting later development and possibly leading to abnormal functioning, or psychopathology. Ultimately, in this stage, boys begin to develop sexual desires for their mother and become jealous of their father. Describe how legal and ethical considerations for group and family therapy differ from those for individual therapy, and explain how these differences might impact your therapeutic approaches for . This learning relies on subcortical striatum structures and focuses on learning sequencing for behaviors. Expert Answer Gender development is influenced by many forces of life. Although Kohlberg indicated that modeling was important and relevant, he posited that it was only relevant once gender constancy is achieved. Kohlberg believed, much like Freud did, that children go through three specific developmental stages in their lives. Thus, there are natural reasons to not intertwine and to instead segregate (Bussey, 2014). As such, the focus educators place on children can have lasting impacts. Case studies, questionnaires, laboratory experiments, and interviews. This desire then leads to a strong fear that his father will ultimately castrate him due to his attraction to his mother, which is known as castration anxiety. Well, really, it is due to the areas of the brain that are impacted. Girls begin desiring their father at this time and become jealous of their mother. Genetic gender predisposition theorists further reference case studies in which males with damaged genitalia undergo plastic surgery as infants to modify their genitalia to be more female aligned. Similar to boys, the development of the superego allows the girl to resolve this conflict. Full-text available. When observing a parent reading a book to their child, Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen (2004) noted that parents used generic expressions that generalized one outcome/trait to all individuals of a gender, during the story. (1984). For instance, the female and male genitalia are different both internally and externally. We will then take a very detailed look at various factors that impact gender socialization while also uncovering two common social theories social learning theory and social cognitive theory. Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features. As our brains physically develop, our cognitive abilities also mature, meaning we are capable of more complex thought. She died shortly after this interrogation on May 28, 1936. Consider this. -emphasizes that children's and adolescents' gender development is influenced by their observation and imitation of others' gender behavior and the rewards/punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and inappropriate behavior compliance following rules, and being neat and orderly are valued and reinforced in many classrooms boys Before we get into those areas, lets remember that we are talking about gender development. Moreover, children in both theories learn about gender roles through observation. DES was prescribed to pregnant women in late 1940s through the early 1970s. While there was significant research done on females, less research was done on males. In this module, we will focus on various theories that have attempted to explain gender development. The structure of personality. Similarly, females need higher levels of estrogen as well as oxytocin, which encourages socialization and bonding (Bevan, 2017). We must first base our theories on the assumption that gender identity is a cognitive concept, i.e., something occurring in our minds and not biologically determined or strictly behavioural. Biological Influences influencing Gender Development : Anatomy [scientific study of male & female human body structures] ; Puberty [Adolescents transition to sexually mature reproductive adults] ; That means we are not focusing on the anatomical/biological sex development of an individual, rather, we are focusing on how biological factors may impact gender development and gendered behavior. Sex-based explanations explain that gendered behaviors have occurred as a way to adapt and increase the chances of reproduction. Nevertheless, few studies have addressed how gender role attitudes develop during adolescence. Hypnosis was used at first and relieved her symptoms, as it had done for many patients (See Module 1). Social cognitive theory. We receive much of our information about gender from models in our environment (think about all the factors we just learned about parents, media, school, peers). This basic evil and basic hostility ultimately led to anxiety. 4.1.1.1. He theorized that children actively seek out information about their environment. A weakness of this theory is that it is descriptive rather than explanatory. Thus, it appears that gender development in those exposed to DES, particularly males, is greatly impacted (Bevan, 2017). By stating this, it had to be understood that a boy and girls develop differently. 4.2.6.1. Because most children desire to belong, they begin to identify with their gendered group, view it positively, and seek information about behaving more like members of their group. Set individual study goals and earn points reaching them. Prior to birth, a mother's diet and health play a key role. When this was discovered, his mother/wife hung herself and Oedipus poked both of his eyes out, blinding him (McLeod, 2008). 4.1.1. True or false? What were the results of Thompsons' 1975 study? Even Disney movies tend to portray stereotyped roles for gender, often having a female in distress that needs to be saved by a male hero; although Disney has made some attempts to show women as more independent and assertive in more characters. It operates on the reality principle, or an awareness of the need to adjust behavior, to meet the demands of our environment. Gender and Aggression Genetic Origins of Aggression Genetic Research on Serotonin Genetical Research on Testosterone Genetics of Aggression Innate Releasing Mechanisms Institutional Aggression in The Context of Prisons Limbic System Media Influences on Aggression Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression Serotonin Research Regarding biological theories, there tends to be four areas of focus. If they learn new information that does not align with what they already know, they will adjust their schema so they are aligned. Lets answer some of those questions. The first approach is biological, whereby two theories will be examined: sociobiological theory and biosocial theory. Excellent question. Give examples that support your conclusion. Theories that suggest that gender identity development is universal across cultures (e.g., Eastern versus Western cultures, etc.) Social learning and cognitive theories suggest that because environmental and cultural cues help form gender self-conceptions and schemas, individuals with autism - who may be less receptive to such cues, or less accepting of gender constructs - may be more likely to experience gender variance. Both types of instincts are sources of stimulation in the body and create a state of tension that is unpleasant, thereby motivating us to reduce them. If a female was disappointed by males in her family (such as her father or brother, etc. He viewed this stage as the time in which boys become men. An environment that is unsafe and results in abuse, neglect, stressful family dynamics, etc. His theory states that gender development occurs in stages, similar to Jean Piaget's 1936 essay describing specific stages in which children develop certain cognitive skills. True or false? Testosterone levels have been linked to sex-typed toy play and activity levels in young children. How do children develop their gender identity in their in-group? The motivating force in this theory is the maintenance of cognitive consistency and the need for self-definition. So why do we have schemas? Girls may also be oriented towards relationships and their appearance rather than careers and academic goals, if they are very closely identifying with traditional gender roles. Human Brain Mapping 43(12): 3857-3872. Think about that for a moment infants are recognizing and matching gender before they can ever talk! Socially sensitive: A potential negative consequence of biological explanations of gender development is that it could reinforce harmful stereotypes. Clarify how Freud theorized gender and how his theory applies to gender in psychology. Cognitive approaches use techniques such as computer models and introspective studies to investigate how our thoughts influence us. Recent studies have shown the possible role and interaction of neuroanatomic, hormonal, and genetic factors. Since the brain makes up . The three major theories of gender are known as the Learning Theory, The Social Learning Theory, and the Cognitive Development Theory. Outline potential strengths and weaknesses of these theories. Define and describe gender schema theory. Ultimately, Freud theorized that an individuals psychosomatic distress (physical symptoms that occur due to psychological distress) was a manifestation of internal conflicts. Cognitive approaches use computer models and introspective studies to examine how our thoughts affect us. To explain this, social cognitive theory posits that one has enactive experiences (this is essentially when a person receives reactions to gendered behavior), direct instruction (this is when someone is taught knowledge of expected gendered behavior), and modeling (this is when others show someone gendered behavior and expectations). For example, boys are praised more for their educational successes (e.g., grades, skill acquisition) whereas girls are acknowledged for more domesticate-related qualities such as having a tidy work area (Eccles, 1987). Further, given that this came down to survival of the fittest it made sense to divvy up tasks and important behaviors. For years researchers have studied humans to determine if genetic or environmental factors have a more significant impact on a person's behavior. In the womb, around the eighth week of pregnancy, the presence of the hormone testosterone determines whether a baby is born with male or female genitalia. and girls are encouraged to play in ways that develop housekeeping skills (dolls, kitchen sets; Bussey, 2014). A schema is our mental representation of a particular concept, an information package. If a toy was attractive (meaning a highly desired toy) but was labeled for girls, boys would reject the toy. So why did Freud describe the conflict in the Phallic stage as the Oedipus complex? We do not really give infants a chance to develop their own preferences parents and the caregivers in their life do that for them, immediately. Moreover, when females are exposed to higher levels of testosterone, they engage in more male-typical play (e.g., preference for trucks over dolls, active play over quiet), rather than female-typical play compared to their counterparts (Hines et al., 2002; Klubeck, Fuentes, Kim-Prieto, 2017; Pasterski et al., 2005). For example, boys preferred toys that an adult labeled as boy toys. Kohlberg (1966) and the gender schema theory (1981). It is present at birth, completely unconscious, and operates on the pleasure principle, resulting in selfishly seeking immediate gratification of our needs no matter what the cost. Theoretically as well as empirically, the approaches and results are quite contradictory. Epigenetics does not look at DNA, but rather things that may impact DNA mutations or the expression of DNA. The development of personality. Once a child can label their own gender, they begin to apply schemas to themselves. Explain how the socialization of gender occurs. Biologically oriented theories, such as that of John Money and Anke Ehrhardt, have focused on the many genetic, anatomical, and hormonal differences between the sexes as providing the major basis for the gender role distinctions shown by . Cognitive approaches in psychology date back to 1967. Freud and other psychoanalysts believed this was the only way to resolve the internal conflict in the subconscious, and to then alleviate the physical and psychological maladjustment that was presenting in the individual. However, by age 2, they show preferences. People with Klinefelter's syndrome have the chromosomal pattern XXY, which results in different physical characteristics than typical males with an XY chromosome. When considering psychological theories of gender development, the age-old question is central to the conversation -- does gender identity develop due to nature or nurture? This occurs somewhere between ages five and seven. However, there are rare exceptions to this rule. View. Thus, the conflict is resolved (McLeod, 2008; Sammons, n.d.). when are cognitive approaches considered to have begun? She also indicated that if females perceived that they had lost the love of their father to another woman (often to the mother) then the individual may become more insecure. When parents approach more gender-equal or neutral interactions, research shows positive outcomes (Bussey, 2014). Social behavior that reflects varying degrees of aggression, dominance, dependency and gentleness. Children are motivated by society's binary expectations to establish their gender identity. In fact, they found that this drug had cancer-related impacts out to three generations! what were kohlberg's stages of gender development and when do they occur? The four areas of focus include (1) evolutionary theories, (2) genetic theories, (3) epigenetic theories, and (4) learning theories (dont worry, we will explain how this is biology related, rather than cognitively or socially related). Unlike Social Learning theory that is based on external rewards and punishments, Cognitive Learning theory states that children develop gender at their own levels. Cognitive processes bring changes to the individual's thought, intelligence, and language. We can use our knowledge of different approaches to evaluate the ones we focus on and see which approach best explains the various elements of a particular topic. Thompson found that the older children were able to correctly identify genders more often than the younger children, suggesting that this skill develops between these two age groups. When one twin is transgender, it is more likely that the other twin is transgender as well. According to Freud, our personality has three parts the id, superego, and ego, and from these our behavior arises. Biological factors of personality are very important for the formation of human personality. The reason it was finally taken off the market was because females were showing higher rates of cancer. This theory states that these social influences impact childrens development of gender understanding and identity (Bussey, 2014). 4.1.1.2. A strength of Kohlberg's theory is that many studies support it, e.g. Moreover, parents tend to reinforce independence in boys, but dependence in girls. Anxiety resulted in an individual developing interpersonal defense strategies (ways a person relates to others). ), or if they were overly threatened by females in their family (especially their mothers), they may develop contempt for their own gender. Parents label gender even when not required. Another theory combines the theory of social learning with cognitive theories (we will discuss cognitive theories below). The idea is that we use schemas about gender to guide our behaviors and actions. A child may develop a schema about dogs that includes knowledge that dogs are furry creatures with four legs. Students also viewed. Over 10 million students from across the world are already learning smarter. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Development When we look at a particular topic in psychology from a particular psychological approach, it can be helpful to look at how other schools of thought also approach the same phenomenon. These theories can be generally divided into three families: biological, socialization, and cognitive. Kohlberg's theory of gender development. Lets look at a few of those factors. What is a criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? 2 Society tends to see gender as binary. Bandura posits three major types of influences that operate to promote gender role development: (1) modeling (observing gender-relevant conceptions and behaviors from a wide range of sources, including family members, peers, teachers, and the media), (2) enactive or direct experience (gender-relevant learning related What is gender biologically? Other factors: Although there is strong evidence for a biological component to gender, other factors - such as cognitive factors and social learning - likely play a role as well. As children develop, parents tend to also continue gender-norm expectations. What are the two cognitive theories of gender development? The Oedipus complex and phallic stage. Although this may seem logical at the surface level, it does not account for what we see in more egalitarian homes and cultures. Clarify biological factors and how they relate to gender in psychology. Create the most beautiful study materials using our templates. These benefits include increased energy levels, improved cognitive function, better skin health, and reduced risk of age-related diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. What are the 3 major theories of gender development? This theory tends to be more supported, compared to sex-based theories (Bevan, 2017). This is important, because we know that the more children watch TV, the more gender stereotypical beliefs they hold (Durkin & Nugent, 1998; Kimball 1986). First, children start recognizing their own gender groups and begin to build schemas. van Schalkwyk et al. labels) when they first encountered them. If a boy sees his dad always doing lawn work, he may mimic this. Sign up to highlight and take notes. The penis, or absence of, is the differentiating factor here, as the libido moves to the penis or clitoris in the Phallic stage. Which of these groups of people do children tend to consider more favourable than the other? Teenagers experience biological, cognitive, and social changes during adolescence that can affect their gender role attitudes (Eagly & Wood, 2012 ). Jun 2017. If not, no worries, we are about to have a crash course to catch you up! 4.1.1.3. Initially developed by Sigmund Freud between 1890 and 1930, the psychodynamic approach focuses on how our unconscious thoughts and drives influence our behaviour. Fig. However, for this book, we will not get into the nitty gritty details (Bevan, 2017). Infants do not prefer gendered toys (Bussey, 2014). Consider hunger, and the associated rumbling of our stomach, fatigue, lack of energy, etc., that motivates us to find and eat food. She theorized that men tried to compensate for their inability to carry a child by succeeding in other areas of life (Psychodynamic and neo-Freudian theories, n.d.).
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